By Mosope Afolabi-Ajayi
When people talk about racism, they mostly think about visible actions such as using racial slurs, hate-crimes or individual discrimination. However, a more devious (and inevitable) form of racism exists within Canada and the United States (US), known as systemic racism. This can also be referred to as structural or institutional racism. Systemic racism can be understood as a form of racism that is embedded within our societal systems such as the legal system or the healthcare system. It involves policies, practices and laws that have unequal impact (e.g. disproportionate harms) on members of a certain group or groups in a society (Braveman et al., 2022; Rucker & Richeson, 2021). Systemic racism is a result of both current and historical societal policies and structures. In Canada and the US, several factors persist in sustaining the pervasiveness of systemic racism in our society. This review will focus on colonial policies, segregation and hierarchy as factors that have historically contributed to systemic racism.
Racism in Canada: A Brief History
Canada’s history is one of a settler-colonial state (see the glossary of terms used posted at the end of this article). Stasiulis and Yuval-Davis (1995, p. 3) define a settler state as one where Europeans have settled, “their descendants have remained politically dominant over Aboriginal peoples” and created a racially and ethnically heterogeneous society (see appendix). Past and current policies of settler colonial states were intended to disadvantage and police Aboriginal communities and benefit solely White settlers during colonialism (University of British Columbia, 2021). Examples of other settler colonial states: South Africa, Israel, Australia among others (Wolfe, 2006). These historical systems have a continued impact on the livelihood of new racialized citizens of the settler state.
Indian Act of 1876
The Indian Act was a set of colonial laws and policies through the colonial government of Canada which policed the identity of First Nations people, their land and local government bodies (The Canadian Encyclopedia, n.d.). It was effective as of 1876 and its objective was to control and integrate Aboriginal people into European Canadian society. It is very crucial to note that the term ‘Indian’ is now considered ignorant and outdated and should only be referred to in legal contexts (McCue, 2020).
During colonialism, the British set up a workforce to govern affairs between Indigenous people and the European colonialists (The Canadian Encyclopedia, n.d.). This was a result of Europeans seeking to conquer and exploit Aboriginal territories and resources (Woolford, 2009). Soon after, King George III made a declaration in 1763 defining the rights and protections of Indigenous people and the process by which the colonial government obtained their land (The Canadian Encyclopedia, n.d.). Additionally, this proclamation outlined the process for signing treaties with Indigenous people. These treaties were based on the premise that Indigenous communities will exchange their territorial rights for goods and services provided by the British Crown (The Canadian Encyclopedia, n.d.; Woolford, 2009). However, the colonists exploited this proclamation and employed it as a tactic to limit Aboriginal people to reserves and purchase their traditional territories (Woolford, 2009).
Subsequently, the colonial government introduced the Gradual Civilization Act of 1857 and the Gradual Enfranchisement Act of 1869 which aimed to police the Indigenous identity. The 1857 act was passed with the intent to urge Indigenous males to learn French or English and forsake their given names for government approved surnames with promises of societal benefits (The Canadian Encyclopedia, n.d.). To police the identity and lands of Indigenous people, the government developed a criterion to define the ‘legal Indian status’ (see appendix) through the 1850 Act for the better protection of the Lands and Property of the Indians in Lower Canada (Parrott, 2022). The 1869 Gradual Enfranchisement Act was developed with the goal of Indigenous people renouncing their identities to be fully integrated into Euro-Canada and considered Canadian (McCardle, 2022). In addition, there were many pathways for the loss of the Indian status, including the completion of a college degree and joining the military (McCue, 2020). It is important to acknowledge that enfranchisement (see appendix) was not well received by the Indigenous population, as only one person voluntarily franchised during this period (The Canadian Encyclopedia, n.d.).
Because of Indigenous resistance to the 1869 act, the colonial government began rescinding the First Nations identity forcefully. The 1876 Indian Act was passed with the main goal of eradicating the Indigenous people and assimilating them into European culture (Parrott, 2022). The Indian Act included policies that controlled the Aboriginal identity, cultural practices, ways of local governance and many more. The Act included bans on traditional Indigenous ceremonies and gatherings such as the potlatch, powwows and the sun dance. It controlled Aboriginal identity by ruling that Indigenous women who married outside their ethnicity would lose their status, and the identity would be passed only through the male lineage (Lavoie & Forget, 2011; The Canadian Encyclopedia, n.d.). The Act also contributed to the establishment of the residential school system, another attempt by the colonial government to forcibly integrate Aboriginal people into the Canadian way of living.
Residential Schools in Canada
Between the eleventh and eighteenth century, Europeans, specifically the French and British set out to explore and settle in North America. During this period, the French ventured into Aboriginal communities to for evangelism purposes, and their efforts to ‘save the souls’ of the communities were intensified by religious orders. Some of these evangelists did not only attempt spiritual conversion but also cultural conversions (Woolford, 2009). Different factions of the church settled in these communities and built churches and schools that were later employed in the nineteenth and twentieth century by the Canadian government to impose European values and ways of life onto Indigenous people (Commission de vérité et réconciliation du Canada, 2015).
The European Christian missionaries brought Christianity during European colonialism of Canada. The goal of the church was to gather souls for God as they were guided by the Bible. The missionaries’ goal of helping the communities was made aware to the Aboriginal people, and at first, they sought out and welcomed the assistance of the evangelists (Commission de vérité et réconciliation du Canada, 2015). The Christian missionaries sought to change the Aboriginal people’s ways of living and align them with European values. The residential school system in Canada was ‘home’ to over 150,000 children from the 1870s up until 1996. The system aimed to “kill the ‘Indian’ child”, that is, to rid Aboriginal children of their traditional knowledge, culture and heritage!’ This policy was enforced by the Canadian federal government and various Christian churches, such as the Catholic and Anglican factions (Nagy & Sehdev, 2012). Indigenous children as young as four years were uprooted from their families and communities, their names changed, as “no civilized tongue could pronounce it” (Nagy & Sehdev, 2012; Commission de vérité et réconciliation du Canada, 2015, p. 173). It was the policy of these institutions to deny the children their traditional languages and rituals. Additionally, the children suffered physical abuse from school staff, they were forced to become labourers in the field, and punishments involved staff withholding meals for bad behaviour (Commission de vérité et réconciliation du Canada, 2015).
Scholars refer to the residential school system as one of the most oppressive and devious forms of structural racism in Canada (National Collaborating Centre for Indigenous Health, 2014). The effects of the residential schools on Indigenous people are profoundly negative. Research shows that experience in the residential school system is associated with violence, substance abuse and depression in First Nations, Inuit and Metis people (Evans-Campbell et al., 2012; Nagy & Sehdev, 2012).
Attending residential schools caused great trauma for Indigenous people in Canada, with effects that extend far beyond the individuals who attended. This trauma has manifested as generational impacts, severely affecting not only the survivors but also their children and subsequent generations (National Collaborating Centre for Indigenous Health, 2014). The legacy of residential schools continues to shape the experiences and well-being of Indigenous communities today, highlighting the enduring consequences of this system. Researchers suggest that policies such as the residential school system represent the Canadian government’s attempt to erase the Indigenous population: they refer to it as ethnocide, which aims to eradicate cultural knowledge, language and the ways of life of a particular ethnic group (MacDonald & Hudson, 2012).
Racism against non-Indigenous People in Canada
The historical inequality in Canada was not limited to First Nations people, as Black and Asian individuals also experienced policy-based discrimination. Until the 1830s, Black people were considered the personal property of European colonists, and did not possess the protection of full citizens, nor the democratic rights or freedom to participate in society (Henry-Dixon, 2016). Enslaved African people in Canada were bought, sold, traded and even inherited, viewed solely as economic tools (Oyeniran, 2022). They were brought to Canada by British and French colonists to be exploited for their labour and to increase colonial wealth. Black people in Canada also experienced segregation and were denied access to employment, housing and education e.g. Black students rejected from medical schools solely based on their skin colour (Henry-Dixon, 2021; Oyeniran, 2022). The Canadian government also made the effort to prohibit Black and other ethnic groups they “deemed unsuited to the climate or requirements of Canada” from immigrating into the colonial state (Henry-Dixon, 2021).
Asian communities experienced prejudice and discrimination during their long history in Canada (Yao, 2022). Chinese labourers were employed to construct the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) (see appendix). Instead, the working conditions for the Chinese workers were terrible, especially when compared to their White counterparts. The Chinese railway workers were assigned risky tasks and paid low wages, which led to many deaths caused by the lack of medical attention (Fernado, 2014). Similar to European settlers, the Chinese emigrated to Canada but unlike the Europeans, Chinese people moved in search of a better life in Euro-Canada because of the poor conditions of their home country. White settlers were unappreciative of the pace at which Chinese immigrants were moving into their communities, this negative response was exacerbated by the fact the population was made up of poor workers (Fernado, 2014).
The construction site of the railways was located in British Columbia, therefore, most Chinese immigrants settled within the province. Residents expressed dissatisfaction with the number of immigrants settling in the area. This sentiment was strong enough to prompt provincial leaders to propose a bill aimed at limiting the immigration of Chinese individuals (Roy, 1989). The Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 (see glossary of terms posted at the end of the article and references) is one of the numerous legislatures passed by colonial Canada with the intent to police racialized groups. Canada’s racist policies were not limited to the Chinese population; Japanese and South Asian immigrants experienced their unfair share of discrimination, for example the internment of Japanese Canadians (see appendix) and the SS Komagata Maru (see glossary of terms) (Robinson, 2024; Johnston, 2024).
Systemic Racism in USA: An Overview
Segregation in USA
Racial residential segregation was a policy that was implemented during the 18th and 19th centuries in the US through the Jim Crow laws (Braveman et al., 2022; HISTORY, 2018). Segregation is a major historical factor that contributes to the inequalities in the system and the policies that govern the society. The segregation policies denied individuals the opportunities for interracial contact which could challenge certain racial beliefs, preferences, and perceptions. Limited interracial contact nurtures the idea that relationships between racial groups are unfavourable if not intolerable (Roberts & Rizzo, 2021).
Research with children reports that children in racially homogenous schools are less likely to think interracial friendships are possible, when compared to children in racially diverse schools (McGlothlin & Killen, 2010). Segregation could also impact one’s preferences towards their ingroup (see appendix), the lack of contact with various racial groups hinders children from fostering familiarity with outgroups (see appendix). Research suggests that at birth, infants react equally to racial ingroup and outgroup members (Kinzler & Spelke, 2011). At 3 months, infants from racially diverse environments maintain equality when reacting to members of their ingroup or outgroups. In contrast, infants surrounded by racial homogeneity (see appendix) exhibited preference for their own racial group, as those are the individuals they have most contact with. A lack of contact between individuals of different racial categories could lead to racist perceptions, as it would lead to a difficulty differentiating between people outside our own racial group because we have limited ourselves to our ingroup (Roberts & Rizzo, 2021).
Social Hierarchy in the US
The societal structure of the U.S. is hierarchically ordered by race. White Americans occupy more of the highest status positions in society, which is notable as 98% of previous presidents were White (Roberts & Rizzo, 2021). This hierarchy (see appendix) stems from previous and current racist policies, ideologies, and practices, and not because White Americans are inherently superior compared to members of other racial groups. Social psychological research suggests that high status groups such as the racial majority, in this context White Americans, are motivated to deny the presence of systemic racism as the hierarchal structure of the society solely benefits them. Additionally, they are likely to reject hierarchy reducing policies such as welfare or affirmative action (see appendix) (DiAngelo, 2012, as cited in Roberts & Rizzo, 2021).
Similarities in Systemic Racism across North America
Canada and the US have enforced similar policies to control racialized communities historically and currently. Both Black and Indigenous people were enslaved by European colonists and brought over to Canada during the early 17th century. These racialized groups experienced physical and sexual abuse in the hands of their European masters, they were sold, used for cheap labour and regarded as lesser human beings (Henry-Dixon, 2022; Lawerence, 2020). Racial segregation was the norm for Black and Indigenous people in Canada, they were excluded and denied access to education, home ownership, employment and even military service (Henry-Dixon, 2021; Lawrence, 2020).
Indigenous people in Canada were forced into areas that were allocated to them solely for the purpose of segregation. These areas are known to us as ‘reserves’ (see appendix) (Brant, 2020). Both countries also restricted the voting rights of racialized groups (Brant, 2020; Henry-Dixon, 2016; Yao, 2022), further instilling the systemic marginalization and exclusion they have faced. The historical and ongoing patterns of colonial control reveal the deep-rooted similarities in the experiences of racialized communities in both the US and Canada or across North America for the purpose of this piece, highlighting the permanent impact of colonialism on their livelihoods.
Next Steps for Policy Makers in North America
Systemic racism is derived from policies, laws and systems that initiated racial injustices; hence, systemic racism can be undone by changing these policies, laws, and systems to eliminate these differences. One approach to dealing with systemic racism is to introduce interventions that could resolve the harm caused by historical events, such as the establishment of the residential school system. These interventions could be referred to as ‘healing centered’ interventions, similar to ‘truth and reconciliation’ facilitations administered in Canada and South Africa, another settler colonial state (Braveman et al., 2022). To address the system’s inequalities, public institutions such as schools and religious organizations must discuss and acknowledge the truth about the slavery of Indigenous and African people, the erasure of their identities, and Canada’s colonial history.
This is particularly important for the Christian church, given its role in the forced assimilation of Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture. Furthermore, it is important for those resisting anti-racism efforts to face accountability from law enforcement. In addition, reparations for certain groups such as Indigenous peoples and African Americans could reduce the negative impact of systemic racism on those communities. Braveman et al. (2022) suggests that reparations could include government investments into the improvement of African American communities or increasing the budgets of Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs). In Canada, the government could invest in Indigenous communities by providing clean water, free health care, low-cost grocery stores etc. The Canadian government could also make the effort to support Indigenous scholars, as they have been historically underrepresented in academia and the industry (CAUT, 2018).
Ultimately, the most advisable approach to take down systemic racism is to educate members of society and especially those of the majority group, White North Americans to change their ignorant discriminatory behaviours towards members of their outgroup. Most North Americans learn about racism through formal education, or mass media which may include misinformation about the history of racism in the US or misrepresent the experience of racism (Rucker & Richeson, 2021). Scholars advise that educational interventions such as the teaching of “critical race theory” could provide the much-needed historical context of racism in the US, and research has indicated that after learning about the history of racism in the US, participants are more likely to acknowledge the existence of systemic racism (Braveman et al., 2022; Rucker & Richeson, 2021).
If White Americans are aware of existing policies and beliefs that promote societal inequality, they may be motivated to support anti-racism initiatives and policies introduced by the government. In the Canadian context, there is a significant effort to deny the country’s colonial history. However, without acknowledging the harmful policies and their profound effects on racialized communities, achieving a truly equitable society remains impossible. Canada’s lack of effort to address past policies that were developed based on racist and sexist settler ideologies continually contributes to the inequalities faced by minority groups (The University of British Columbia, 2021). Hence, there is a need for Canada to employ the curriculum of ‘critical race theory’ taught in the US. Policy makers should ensure that school boards educate children on the colonial history of Canada, and any resistance to anti-racism should have consequences.
The suggested approaches to undoing systemic racism could encourage individuals to learn about societal inequalities, to vote for widely beneficial policy changes, and rally organizations and institutions to make a much-needed change to our societies in Canada and USA, North America and beyond.
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Mosope Afolabi-Ajayi is a postgraduate student in the Research Analyst program at Humber Polytechnic. She completed her Bachelor of Science degree in Psychology at York University. Her research interests include intergroup bias, recidivism, homelessness, racial disparities in criminal justice and healthcare systems, and many more. She is also interested in evaluation research.
